Universal Design was introduced as a concept by architect Ronald Mace in the 1970's, after his own difficulties with access to the buildings at the North Carolina University School of Design. Mace had contracted polio as a child, and used a wheelchair throughout his life.
According to Mace, Universal Design is "the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaption or specialized design." It does not focus on adaptive technology, but on easy, equal access as part of the original design, such as a building without steps or other barriers to the use of wheelchairs or other mobility devises, instead of an out of the way ramp for alternate access.
Today, universal design is used to refer to all aspects of accessibility, including technological accessibility, not just physical barriers. It is most often defined as: deliberate design of an environment to be accessed, understood and used by the largest extent of people with minimal or no adaptions and regardless of age, size, ability or disability.
This library has the largest amount of relevant sources pertaining to the early adaption of accessible architecture in Minnesota that lead to the principle of universal design used today. For studies on more recent universal design, including technological universal design standards, visit the University of Minnesota library and their Disability Studies Research Guide.
Source: "Ronald Mace and His Impact on Universal Design", by Stephanie Woodward. Center for Disability Rights Webpage, accessed May 5, 2025.
While now called "Universal Design", the principles involved have been called by several different terms through time. Try these search terms in the library catalog or legislative indexes:
Library of Congress Subject Headings:
1950: National Barrier-Free Standards Movement is founded by disabled World War II and the larger disabled community, insisting upon the right to full access for all to public buildings and facilities.
1968: National Architectural Barriers Act requires all new buildings made with federal funding be accessible to those with mobility disabilities.
1978: "We Will Ride" Protest in Denver, Colorado. Buses are deliberately blocked by persons using wheelchairs to protest their inability to use public transportation. Similar protests spread across the nation.
1983: Americans with Disabilities for Accessible Public Transportation (ADAPT) is founded to continue national efforts to make all buses and trains accessible.
1986 (May): National Barrier Awareness Day is proclaimed by Ronald Reagan to raise awareness and work towards eliminating the visible and invisible barriers faced by people with disabilities.
1990 (March 12): "Capitol Crawl" Protest emphasizes the inaccessibility of the nation's government with physically disabled community members crawling up the Capitol Building steps. Advocates sought to place pressure on Congress over the delays in passing the Americans with Disabilities Act.
1998: Amendment to the federal 1973 Rehabilitation Act requiring federal agencies to ensure all information technology used is accessible.
1999: World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) begins publishing its Web Content Access Guidelines (WCAG) for making websites universally accessible through font guidance, color choices, alternative text, and screen reader friendly text.
2010: Americans with Disabilities Act Standards for Accessible Design prompts the Department of Justice to issue revised regulations setting minimum requirements for accessible design of new state and local government facilities, public accommodations, and commercial facilities.
2025-2026: Compliance deadlines for the adopting of WCAG standards for local and state government funded organization's websites.
Primary Sources:
Published Records and Reports, Minnesota State Council on Disability, 1973-2002. Annual reports, legislative publications, newsletters, studies, proposals, brochures, planning documents, and various print and near-print materials documenting the activities of the council and its predecessors, the Minnesota Commission for the Handicapped (1973-1975) and Minnesota State Council for the Handicapped (1975-1987). Topics covered include disability legislation, educational services, housing, employment, accessibility, parking, independent living, and services for the disabled. Digital Finding Aid
Sound the Trumpets! A Promotional Films, Inc. Production ; Written by Cliff Sakry: Minneapolis, Minn. Architectural Barriers Committee of Minnesota Society for Crippled Children and Adults, 1962, Film: MNHS call number: User Copy A-107
Final report, Minnesota architectural barriers community surveys / grantee: The Minnesota Society for Crippled Children and Adults, Inc.; final report prepared by Robert W. Schwanke, William B. Hopkins, 1969. MNHS call number: NA2545.P5 S38 1969
National Handicap Housing Institute. Survey of Handicapped Individuals’ Housing Preferences : Research Report / Prepared by National Handicap Housing Institute ... [et Al.]. Minneapolis? Minn: The Institute, 1980. The results of a survey by the National Handicap Housing Institute examining the preferences of respondents, most of whom were self-identified with a mobility based disability. MNHS call number: NA2545.P5 S87 1980
Wheeling St. Paul : a guide to St. Paul for the physically handicapped/ by the Guidebook Committee of the Greater St. Paul Area Council on Employment of the Handicapped, 1974. St. Paul, Minn. : The Council. MNHS call number: F613.S16 G74 1974
The Minnesota travel guide for persons with disabilities, 2003. MNHS call number: HV1568.6 .M56 2003
Minnesota Photographers Oral History Project: Interview with Jeff Farnam, 1990. Jeff Farnam is a photographer with an interest in the Block "E" area of Hennepin Avenue. He had a spinal cord injury while in high school that resulted in his status as a C-5 spinal cord injury quadriplegic. Subjects discussed include adapting cameras and photography equipment to the needs of the handicapped; wheelchair mobility and accessibility to subjects to be photographed; a description of Hennepin Avenue Block "E," and its bars and establishments. Link to digital audio and transcripts
Examples of the building code changes in Minnesota:
Accessible Architecture : An Illustrated Handbook Based on Minnesota State Building Code Chapter 55 / Illustrated and Edited by Harold Kiewel and John Salmen. s.l: s.n.], 1977. MNHS call number: NA2545.P5 K5
Architectural Barriers, Fading from the Scene in Minneapolis, Minnesota (and Other Local Architectural Barriers Activities); a Legislative Report. Minneapolis: N.p., 1969. Citing the changes in the building codes for Minneapolis, one of the first cities to modify their building code to require architectural barrier-free new public buildings starting February 14, 1969. A curb ramping ordinance was passed April 11, 1968. MNHS call number: NA2545.P5 M55
